For printed books or periodical articles, look for the author information:
In the beginning, introduction, or specific section (e.g. author affiliations, contributors, About the Author)
At the bottom of the first page of a chapter or article, often as a footnote, for education, expertise, affiliations
If in a database, look for an Authors Affiliation field for affiliations
If no information is provided other than a name, use a search engine to check for further information
For web sources, look for the author information:
At the top and bottom of the page as author contact or author affiliation for education, experience, expertise, affiliations, background
On the "About Us" or "Staff" sections, which may be on the webpage or elsewhere on the site, for author biography
If no information is provided other than a name, use a search engine to check for further information.
For sources with no listed author or corporate authors, like government agencies, look at the type of organization, publisher, and staff for expertise, affiliations, background
Citations Video
Evaluating Citations
For printed books or periodical articles, look for citation information:
In the front of books or periodicals for editor information
In descriptions of periodicals provided either in the database or publication website for peer review
At the end of books, chapters, or articles, usually specifically titled as bibliography, references, or works cited
At the bottom of pages for footnotes or end notes
Throughout the source for parenthetical, in-text citations
Red Flags / Problematic:
Only cites or links same person or group
Provides incomplete citations
Typographical or formatting errors
Provides no citations or editing
For web sources, look for citation information:
In "About Us" or "About" sections to determine what types of editing, fact checking, or review occur
Throughout the source as parenthetical, in-text citations, references, or hyperlinks
At the end of pages for lists of sources, usually titled sources, references, or bibliography
Red Flags / Problematic:
Only cites or links same person or group
Provides incomplete citations
Typographical or formatting errors and strange addresses (URLs)
Provides no citations or editing
Objectivity Video
Evaluating Objectivity
For printed books or periodical articles, look for:
Text indicators of bias such as inflammatory language, unsupported opinion (e.g. opinion without evidence)
Author affiliations that may present conflicts of interest or personal agenda (e.g. political affiliation, financial gain)
Balanced coverage of multiple perspectives based on verifiable information
Type of publisher, as academic presses generally strive for objective, verifiable information
For web sources, look for:
Author affiliations and the "About Us" or "About" sections to determine mission, purpose, information creation strategies, and potential conflicts of interestof author and organization
Text indicators of bias such as inflammatory language or graphics, unsupported opinion, advertisements
Balanced coverage of multiple perspectives based on verifiable information
Type of publisher and site
government (.gov) and education (.edu) tend to be more objective
commercial (.com) and network (.net) tend to be less objective
organization (.org) requires extra care when evaluating, as types and amounts of biases within organizations varies
Relevance Video
Evaluating Relevance
For printed books or periodical articles, look for:
Information format, as the scope, content, and purpose varies for each type
Keywords in Title, Table of Contents, Index, and Introduction
In databases, look also at Abstract, Subject Terms, Contents, and Summary
Intended audience of each source; may be in Introduction or determined by information format
Depth of information, which includes how specific it is and whether it is consistent with other sources
For web sources, look for:
Scope and content, which vary widely depending on purpose (e.g. entertainment, statistics)
Keywords in Title and throughout web page
References to original sources (e.g. if a web page describes a research study, find original source for further information)
Intended audience is usually general, so consider if specific or scholarly enough for your information need
Depth of information, which includes how specific it is and whether it is consistent with other sources
Date Video
Evaluating Date
For printed books or periodical articles, look for date:
In the front or back of the title page of books for a copyright date
Near the volume and issue number for periodicals for a publication date
In specific fields (e.g. Publication Info., Source, Publication Date), depending on format type and databases
Along with context: a medical or technological topic may require more timely information than a historic or literary one
For web sources, look for date:
Towards the top or bottom of the web pagefor publication date and/or copyright date
May appear as Last Updated, Last Revised, or Date modified date
Copyright dates aren't related to publication dates. Current copyright dates don't indicate new content, although older ones may indicate older content.
If no date listed, look at age of sources or references used to get some idea of timeliness
Along with context: a medical or technological topic may require more timely information than a historic or literary one
