What to do we mean by information "format"?
The organization, intended audience, length, and publication standards define the format type of information. Each format presents information in a different way and with a different purpose. A well-rounded research project will consult multiple format types.
What are the characteristics of common information formats?
The tabs below describe the characteristics of several information formats. Keep in mind that some of the characteristics may vary depending on other factors, such as if the source is popular or scholarly or primary or secondary.
How does digital information differ from what we access in printed form?
Almost any type of format can be found online, either through a search engine or a library database. However, since many visual clues are lost, it can be difficult to distinguish the format types online. Using the knowledge of formats from the other tabs can help identify what you have found. Some formats, such as web pages, blogs, and social media, are only found online, though, which is what that section covers.
Additionally, most databases allow researchers to search or sort results by publication type. These options include scholarly journals, peer-reviewed journals, industry publications, magazines, and newspapers.
Adapted from K. Brunetti's Information Formats
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Appearance: Formal organization with table of contents, divisions, and index; few glossy images, but may include charts or primary sources; language varies depending on audience Audience: Varies; some books meant for more general audience (e.g. celebrity autobiography), others meant for scholars, researchers, and students Author/Authority: Varies, but usually someone with expertise in the field Citations: Numerous and provided via formal bibliography or works cited Content: Specific, in depth coverage and analyses of topic; chapters usually topical and can use index to look for specific subtopics; may be more dated than current periodical articles Frequency: Infrequent; takes years to develop and to update books Examples: Purpose and Meaning in the Workplace (Bryan J. Dik) Good For: Detailed analysis of topic Look Elsewhere For: Current events |
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| Research Tip: Reference books such as encyclopedias, dictionaries, and handbooks provide concise, but authoritative overviews of a topic in plain language. They are great starting places for your research because they introduce key concepts, technical language, and background you need to access more in depth sources. |
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Academics journals are also known as scholarly, refereed, or peer-reviewed journals. Appearance: Academic journals often have a formal style, with some graphs and charts, but few glossy pages or photographs. The articles use scholarly language with vocabulary specific to their profession or field. Audience: Written for academics and professionals. Author/Authority: Articles written by researchers or scholars in the field who report the results of original research. Citations: Articles include footnotes and a list of citations at the end of the article. Content: Includes scholarly research for a particular profession or industry. Articles usually contain an abstract, methodology, discussion, charts or tables, results, conclusions, and references. Frequency: Usually published bimonthly or quarterly. Examples: American Journal of Nursing Good For: Original research Look Elsewhere For: Current events |
JAMA: Journal of the American Medical Association |
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Also known as industry magazines. Appearance: Generally attractive and are often illustrated with color photographs. Audience: Written for industry professionals. Author/Authority: Articles written by staff writers, though the magazine may sometimes accept articles from industry professionals. Citations: Occasionally list references at the end of the article or provide footnotes within the text. Content: Includes current events and special features within a particular profession or industry. Frequency: Usually published biweekly or monthly. Examples: Advertising Age Good For: News, trends, issues for the particular industry Look Elsewhere For: Expansive coverage of news events |
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Appearance: Generally attractive and illustrated with color photographs. Audience: Written for the general public. Author/Authority: Articles written by staff or freelance writer. Content: Includes current events and special features, with deeper coverage than newspapers. Frequency: Usually published weekly or monthly. Examples: Newsweek Good For: More expansive view of topic Look Elsewhere For: Current events |
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Appearance: Generally printed on newsprint in black ink. Audience: Written for the general public. Author/Authority: Articles written by staff writers and freelance journalists. Citations: Will sometimes cite sources, a scholar, or a freelance writer. Content: Includes current events and special features. Frequency: Usually published daily or weekly. Examples: The Advocate Good For: Current events Look Elsewhere For: In-depth, scholarly analysis |
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Appearance: Varies, as government documents can be reports, statistics, periodicals, websites, etc.; online will end in .gov; all will mention government agency or department involved Audience: Varies, but usually citizens, policymakers, and researchers Author/Authority: Highly authoritative; official records of government bodies, expert research Citations: Frequently used, but appearance varies depending on the type of government document; usually formal bibliography provided Content: Current and historical information related to government policies on local, state, and national level; includes legal, statistical, and other forms of information in various subject areas Frequency: Varies, but frequently updated Examples: The Constitution of the United States Good For: Statistics Look Elsewhere For: Opinions or editorials |
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Appearance: Varies widely depending on type of resource (e.g. web page, blog); generally heavy use of graphics and design, as well as audio and visual materials Audience: Varies, but usually written for a general audience Author/Authority: Varies widely and must be investigated; can look at domain (.gov = government, .edu = education), About pages, and any information on author's expertise Citations: Rarely provided; if provided, usually hyperlinks rather than formal works cited Content: Varies; no standard structure; must be investigated for accuracy because often includes broad, undocumented information and personal opinion Frequency: Varies and must be investigated; easy to update, but often does not include information on page Examples: American Nursing Association Good For: Browsing current events and viewpoints Look Elsewhere For: In-depth, scholarly analysis and formal research, which normally require subscription |
Photo from Southeastern Louisiana University, Creative Services. |
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Appearance: Varies widely depending on type of resource (e.g. painting, film, dance, music) Audience: Varies, but usually intended for a general audience Author/Authority: Varies widely; ranges from formal training to primary experiences and movements (e.g. Impressionism, social justice) Citations: Rarely provided, as most artistic works are primary sources Content: Varies; no standard structure; can represent, document, or fictionalize all or any part of an event Frequency: Varies; can occur at any time and apply to past, present, future, or fictionalized events Examples: The Two Fridas (Painting by Frida Kahlo)
Good For: Primary information on people, events, and time periods Look Elsewhere For: In-depth, scholarly analysis |
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